Women’s Role in Socio-Cultural Movements

When we review the history of Kerala we could sense a throb of their niche in movements /agitations before the formation of Kerala State. And for this a notable role was played by Yogakshema Sabha in divulging the pitiable status of women in the early 1930s. The most significant plays during that period viz.,Adukkalayil Ninnu Arangathekku (1929-V.T. Bhattathiripad), Marakkutakkullile Mahanarakam (1931-M.R. Bhattathiripad) and Rithumathi (1938-M.P. Bhattathiripad) too were written with the conscious purpose of liberating women from their age old thralldoms.

*The emergence of Karshaka Sangham and the participation of women in the struggles gave a different outlook for the changed situation. Rise in wages, freedom from evictions, change in the customary practices etc. were the initial demands of the Karshaka Sangham. Added to that, the Estate workers, Factory workers raised the demands like minimum wages, working hours to be restricted to 8 hours, and freedom from sexual exploitation, etc. The peasant organisation changed the face struggle from a passive reformist struggles to more active demanding, revolutionary type of struggles. The fight against the janmi was paused as the fight against Imperialism. The same spirit was used by the nationalists to arm them with slogans of the National movement. Thus in Kerala, the reform movement and the peasant movement were merged to form the national struggle. Thus, unlike Bengal or Maharashtra, women from all castes and classes joined the national movement in Kerala.

By 1935, Women of all classes including nampudiris and ambalavasis were in the public space either through peasant struggles or through congress socialist party, congress party, and freedom movement. The educated women of upper caste and class were quite active in the local youth clubs and mahila sanghams and samajams. They came forward propagating Misra Bhojanam and Ayithochadanam by publishing magazines and pamphlets. While women of upper caste and class were fighting for the common cause there were also fights from the downtrodden against the upper caste. The Kovilakams were considered to be the domain of the savarnas and they were more or less ruling the area around the Kovilakams. When the rights were realised by the downtrodden, they also raised their voices against such domination. And such women are still remembered through songs or folk songs even now in Kerala. The case of Kathia is such a one. The fearless fights by Dalit women was possible only with the widespread mobilization of the Karshaka Sangham. The peasants were made to understand their right in the land. This helped them and gave them courage to question their own landlords to a certain extent. There were local level protests like this in more or less all the areas with the backing of Kissan sabhafrom 1936-1946. In North Malabar the Karshaka Sangham was quite active and led many struggles.

The well-known Thol Viraku Samaram is such a protest. More than 100 women participated in that protest. This was also one of the women led struggles, led by Karthyayani Amma (Mrs. Thirumumbu) of Cheemeni Estate. Peasant women of the Cheemeni estate were using fuel and fodder from the estate area. The estate was that of Subramanyan Thirumumbu, an activist of the left wing. When the land was sold to one john Kotukkapally, the new landlord refused to give the fuel and fodder to women of that area. Since women were using it for such a long time, and they felt that it is their right to get fuel and fodder from the place they work, they protested. For support, they immediately contacted the Karshaka Sangham, and planned for an organized protest. This was led by Karthyayani, the wife of Subramanyan Thirumumpu. Thirumumpu immediately wrote a marching song and more than 100 women were organised and they marched to the estate singing the song…… there were arrests and harassment by the Police but women refused to abide by the Police and marched forward and regained the right for fuel and fodder. This was an epoch-making struggle in the history of Kerala. Other women participated in the protest were, Smt. Lakshmi, Smt. Karthyayani amma, Chettichi Paru etc.

*(Extract from: Local history of women's participation in the freedom movement and socio-political movement in Kerala: Analysis and Documentation : T.K.Anandi)

Women and Teacher’s Movement*

Teachers who were appointed in the management schools were treated like slaves of the Managers. Their salary was an issue, Fixation was another matter and the managers had ensured that there was no security for their jobs. The teachers also started raising their issue through an organisation Aided Elementary School Teachers’ Organisation. The role of women in the teacher’s movement was very remarkable. Teachers like Yasodha Teacher, Lakshmikutty Teacher were at the forefront to organise teachers and demand their rights. The other teachers looked down upon them but still with the political awareness they gained through their exposure to the political field, they managed to mobilise women teachers and formed an Organisation. Lakshmikutty teacher belonged to an upper caste who got education and also married to a person who was also an activist in both politics and teachers movement. It was easy for her to come out and organize women. She had the initiative and interest in doing so.

Yasodha teacher belonged to Ezhava community who were already depressed and denied education. She came to the political arena of her own. And through teachers’ movement she was able to formulate a woman’s perspective to the whole communist movement in Kerala is really remarkable.

*(Extract from: Local history of women's participation in the freedom movement and socio-political movement in Kerala: Analysis and Documentation : T.K.Anandi

The Right of Dress*

In old Kerala, since people lived in their discrete groups with their lives regulated by rules and restrictions on their movements and visibility, in order to facilitate the functioning of this system, identification of people by their modes of dress and hair styles was quite important. The rules and regulations for women’s dress till the nineteenth century were different among the castes. Going by the dress restrictions imposed during that time all women had to go without an upper garment before their superiors, but the lower caste women, had to go bare breasted before every one.
During the first half of 19th century, 1813-1858, the privilege of women to cover their bodies with an upper cloth becomes a volatile issue in Kerala. In the drama that ensued, all castes and communities got involved. The debate symbolised great discontent with the various kinds of social humiliations heaped on the lower castes and the right of women to cover their breasts became and issue of status than of decency.

It is relevant to refer here to the role of the European missionaries who with their notions of decency were very anxious that at least women who became Christains should be “decently”covered. They could win for the women of Christian faith the right to cover their breast from the British Resident attached to the princely states of Travancore and Cochin in 1813.But it provoked violent protest from the higher caste Hindus.

“In 1822 the caste Hindu women reacted violently against this violation of taboos. They began by tearing off the blouses of the low-caste Christian women, which led to riots, arson and even murders” (Qaisar,1968).

Some time later, Nadars, lower caste Hindus from whom a large number got converted to Christianity, suffering as they were from various indignities including those requiring women not to wear any clothing above the waist, carry an umbrella, wear footwear or gold ornaments or carry water on their hips, rose in protest. With the support of the Church and the British representatives they organised “Maru Marakkal Smaram”, which has come to the known also as the “Upper Cloth Revolt”. Ultimately, the right of cover their breasts was granted first to Christian women and then to women of all castes by1859. Infact, the proclamation on the subject stipulated “punishment for the women who continued in uncovered freedom”(Madhavi,1994).

Putting the ‘Upper Cloth Movement’ in the context of the period, one must add that even Namboodiri women went bare breasted in the privacy of their homes or before temple deities. Nair women had to uncover themselves before temple deities and upper caste superiors. Lower cast women however had to go bare breasted at all times. Bare breastedness was thus humiliation, according to the customs prevailing in those days.

Whatever the original rationale behind the practice, the fact remains that by the early 19th century had come to be regarded as a humiliation heaped on women, particularly of lower castes. The breast cloth controversy and the ensuing struggle were in a way the starting point of low caste assertiveness and broader reform movement in Kerala. It is also significant that the start was made with protest against rules and regulations imposing restrictions and prohibitions on women.

The Breast cloth controversy was really only the tip of the iceberg. Several other disabilities and discontents among both men and women were brewing, waiting for and outlet of expression. The period between 1850 to 1910, was a period of great revolutionary changes in Kerala. Nowhere else in the country were the reforms so profound and so all pervasive, redefining social conventions and family life beyond recognition.

Major and rapid amelioration took place in Kerala due to interplay of factors that took place independently of each other but at the same time. The more significant ones being the development of the print medium, an awakening of political consciousness an awareness of social disabilities and reform movements. The development of the novel and prose in the context of the nationalist agitation created a climate for unprecedented upheavals in the society.

*(Excerpt from: Gender Profile-Kerala: Leela Gulati, Ramalingam, I.S Gulati)

Other Organized Struggles*

Outside of agriculture, two major avenues of employment (leaving out government service) have been coir and cashew industries. Some estimates put the number engaged in these two traditional low skills, low paying industries at 3.2 lakh and 1 lakh respectively.

Coir industry accounts for 85% of the total coir production of India. The raw material for this industry is the coconut husk which covers the fruit. Retting in the backwaters, called ‘Kayals’, is the basic process involved in the processing of raw husk. The practice of retting emits a certain foul smelling (hydrogen sulphide) gas and pollutes the stagnant ‘Kayal’ waters. Women constitute ninety percent of the workers engaged in this industry, concentrated though they are in the two sectors of defibring and spinning. The wage rates have been low and working conditions deplorable. Processing of retted husks which foul smells and in damp surroundings is a major health hazard that women who work in this occupation face.

The production of coir fibre, yarn and ropes have important uses form time immemorial. The 1931 Census of Travancore has this to say about this industry :
“The importance of coir industry can be gauged from the fact that out of 3 lakh industrial workers, 1.3 lakh or 36 per cent are employed in this industry alone, and that out of the total export trade of Rs. 11.25 crores in 1930, the value of the products of coir yarn industry exported from the country amounted to more than Rs. 2 crores “(Census of Travancore, 1931)

The overwhelming majority (80 per cent) of the workers in coir factories came from the socially background Ezahva community and they are mostly women. As a result of certain industrial advantages that the coir industry received in the 1850’s, it got concentrated in the district of Alleppey. This concentration helped Alleppey to become the centre of the working class movement. The coir workers organized into unions shortly after the agriculture unions were founded.

In the cashew industry also, ninety percent of the workers are women. The industry is concentrated in the district of Kollam. The working conditions in the industry were deplorable. Long hours of work, unhealthy surroundings and meager remuneration characterized the industry. To fight for better wages and working conditions, organized actions by the workers date back to 1920’s and 1930’s. While various struggles for improved conditions saw active participation by women, it cannot be overlooked that even in these two industries where women far outnumbered men, leadership remained predominantly male.

*(Excerpt from: Gender Profile-Kerala: Leela Gulati, Ramalingam, I.S Gulati)